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心理学与生活-第91章

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a) Major changes in the life situation are the root cause of stress for many 
individuals 

(i) The Social Readjustment Rating scale (SRRS) rates degree of 
adjustment required by life changes; both pleasant and 
unpleasant; is measured in total number of life…change units 
(ii) The life experience survey (LES) measures effects of life events 
in a different manner than the SRRS 
(a) Provides scores for both increases and decreases 
(b) Scores reflect individual appraisals of events 
(iii) Considerations for interpreting measurements of stressful life 
events include: 
(a) Tendency for studies to be retrospective; thus dependent on 
recall 
(b) Prospective studies finding significant correlations 
between development of medical problems and earlier 
accumulation of life stress units 
2。 Catastrophic and Traumatic Events 
a) Catastrophic events are particularly stressful due to uncontrollability; 
unpredictability; and ambiguity 

b) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 

(i) Delayed reaction to stress; that occurs repeatedly 
(a) Emotional numbing to daily events 
(b) Feelings of alienation from others 
(c) Emotional pain 
(d) Sleep disorders 
(e) Survivor guilt 
(f) Concentration problems 
(g) Exaggerated startle response 
(ii) Clinical manifestations of PTSD are described as conditioned 
responses; learned in the context of a life…threatening stimulus 
situation 
(iii) Responses can persist; being a chronic syndrome known 
as the residual stress pattern 
3。 Chronic Stressors 
a) Chronic stressors endure over time。 Such as: 

(i) Overpopulation and crime 
(ii) Health crisis such as cancer and AIDS 
(iii) Threat of nuclear war 
b) Some population groups experience chronic stress as a function of 
their SES or racial/ethnic identity 

244 


CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH 

4。 Daily Hassles 
a) Daily hassles are recurring day…to…day stressors that confront most 
people much of the time 

b) Relationship between hassles and health problems indicates that the 
more frequent and intense the hassles; the poorer the health of the 
individual; both physically and mentally 

c) Stressors that occur on a daily basis may have a negative impact on 
cognitive functioning; including memory impairment 

D。 Coping with Stress 
1。 Coping is the process of dealing with internal or external demands that are 
perceived as straining or exceeding an individual’s resources 
2。 Coping may consist of behavioral; emotional; or motivational responses and 
thoughts 
3。 Appraisal of stress 
a) Cognitive appraisal plays a central role in defining the situation; refers 
to the cognitive interpretation and evaluation of a stressor 

b) Lazarus distinguished two phases in cognitive appraisal 

(i) Primary appraisal is used for initial evaluation of the 
seriousness of a demand 
(ii) Secondary appraisal begins the process of deciding that 
something must be done 
c) Stress moderator variables are those variables that change the impact of 
a stressor on a given type of stress reaction 

4。 Types of Coping Responses 
a) Anticipatory coping precedes a potentially stressful event 

b) Two main methods of coping 

(i) Problem…directed coping; attempts to change the stressor or 
one’s relationship to it through direct actions and/or 
problem…solving activities; most often used for controllable 
stressors 
(ii) Emotion…focused coping; changing the self through activities 
that make one feel better; but do not change the stressor; most 
often used for uncontrollable stressors 
5。 Modifying cognitive strategies are adaptive methods of changing one’s 
evaluations of stressors and self…defeating cognitions about addressing them; 
two methods of mentally coping with stress are: 
a) Reappraisal of the nature of the stressors 

b) Restructuring of one’s cognitions about one’s stress reactions 

c) Meichenbaum proposed a three…phase process that allows for stress 
inoculation 

(i) Phase 1: Individuals work to develop greater awareness of 
their actual behavior—what instigates it and what the results 
are 
245 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

(ii) Phase 2: Identification of new behaviors that negate the 
maladaptive; self…defeating behaviors of the past 
(iii) Phase 3: Once engaged in adaptive behaviors; appraisal of 
consequences of new behaviors from a positive perspective 
d) Perceived control is a main theme of coping; the feeling that one has the 
ability to make a difference in the oute of an event or experience 

6。 Social Support as a Coping Resource 
a) Social support refers to the resources others provide; giving the 
message that one is loved; cared for; esteemed; and connected to others 
in a network of munication and mutual obligation 

b) Other forms of support include: 

(i) Tangible support: money; transportation; housing 
(ii) Informational support: advice; personal feedback; and 
information 
c) Positive effects of social support can improve recovery from diagnosed 
illness and reduce risk of death from disease 

III。 Health Psychology 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Health psychology is the branch of psychology devoted to understanding the 
way people stay healthy; the reasons they bee ill; and the way they 
respond when they do bee ill。 
2。 Health refers to the general condition of the body and mind in terms of 
soundness and vigor。 
B。 The Biopsychosocial Model of Health 
1。 Traditional health practices employ practices that enhance the quality of life 
a) Hozho; a Navajo concept; sees illness as the oute of disharmony; 
with traditional healing ceremonies that seek to banish illness and 
restore health through efforts of the shaman and the bined efforts 
of the family members; working with the ill person to reachieve a state 
of harmony 

b) Among the Nyukusa peoples of Africa; any sign of disharmony or 
deviation from expected norms generates swift munal intervention 
to rectify the situation 

c) Western view of medicine typically involves solely a biological or 
pharmacological intervention 

2。 Toward a Biopsychosocial Model 
a) In contrast to non…Western cultures; which often assumed a link 
between body and mind; the traditional Western biomedical model is 
dualistic; medically treating the body separately from the psyche 

b) The biopsychosocial model links physical health to state of mind and 
environment。 It has three ponents: 

(i) Bio acknowledges the reality of biological illness 
246 


CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH 

(ii) Psycho and social acknowledge the psychological and social 
ponents of health 
c) Concept of wellness incorporates physical; intellectual; emotional 
spiritual; social; and environmental aspects of your life 

d) Health behavior refers to the undertaking of an activity for purposes of 
preventing disease or detecting it while still asymptomatic 

C。 Health Promotion 
1。 Health promotion means development of general strategies and specific tactics 
to eliminate or reduce the risk of getting sick 
2。 Smoking 
a) Smoking may be initiated as a sensation…seeking mode 

b) Readiness to quit smoking entails five stages: 

(i) Precontemplation; not yet thinking about quitting 
(ii) Contemplation; thinking about quitting but no behavioral 
changes 
(iii) Preparation; getting ready to quit 
(iv) Action; taking of action by establishing behavior goals 
(v) Maintenance; now a nonsmoker; individual tries to remain so 
3。 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) 
a) The causal agent is HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) 

(i) Infectious agent is not airborne 
(ii) Requires direct access to the bloodstream to produce infection 
b) The virus is passed from one person to another in one of two ways: 
(i) The exchange of semen or blood during sexual contact 
(ii) The sharing of intravenous needles and syringes used for 
injection of intravenous drugs 
c) Who is at risk for AIDS? 

(i) Everyone! 
(ii) According to Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention; 
35;000 individuals—1 in every 500 college students—are HIV 
positive 
d) Coates’ multidisciplinary team approach uses psychological 
principles to prevent spread of AIDS 

e) Suc

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