心理学与生活-第94章
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exceeding one’s resources。 It is the process of trying to manage and master stressful events。 Researchers
distinguish between two types of coping that can occur simultaneously：
。 Problem…Solving Efforts； which are attempts to do something constructive to change the stressful
circumstances
。 Emotion…Focused coping； which involves efforts to regulate the emotional reactions to stressful events。
What constitutes successful coping？ Researchers in this area differ in the criteria by which they measure
successful coping。 However； we can say that coping efforts are deemed successful if they：
。 Reduce physiological arousal and its indicators such as heart rate
。 Permit a quick return to previous life patterns
。 Reduce psychological distress； such as anxiety and depression
COPING STYLES
Coping style is an internal coping resource； consisting of a general tendency for a person to deal with a
stressful event in a particular way。 Examples of coping styles include：
Avoidance versus Confrontation
Some people meet events head…on； tackling problems directly。 Others attempt to minimize the
significance or withdraw from such events； often through alcohol and drugs。 Avoiders may not be able
to deal with the possibility of future threats and may fail in their attempts at making efforts to anticipate
and manage subsequent problems。 On the other hand； confronters may deal effectively with long…term
threats； although in the short…run they may be more anxious as they deal directly with the stressor。
Type A Behavior
There are coping styles that successfully deal with stress； but that also have an adverse impact on
health。 One of them； Type A Behavior； has been associated with heart disease for several years。 The
Type A individual was first identified in 1978 and is characterized by aggression； petition；
achievement； time urgency； and hostility。 Type A individuals lead fast…track lives。 Many of your
students are probably junior Type A’s。 They work long hours； are impatient with what they perceive as
slow behavior in others； and often finish other people’s sentences for them。 The Type A behavior
syndrome is important because it has been reliably related to the development of coronary artery
disease； as a function of excessive physiological arousal in response to stressful events。 Recently；
researchers have identified the hostility ponent of Type A behavior as more damaging than time
urgency or petitiveness to the circulatory system。
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CHAPTER 13： EMOTION； STRESS； AND HEALTH
SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR STRESS
Socially supportive relationships may mitigate the effects of stress by helping people cope with and resolve
problems。 Social relationships promote health。 Social support is an interpersonal exchange in which one
person gives help to another。 It may be provided in numerous ways； including：
。 Emotional concern； as expressed through liking； love； sympathy； and empathy
。 Instrumental aid through the provision of goods or services during someone’s time of need
。 Providing information about a stressful situation； perhaps a similar one experienced by them
。 Reassurance by others that you are acting in a reasonable； responsible manner
We have a great deal of data to indicate that social support during times of stress can effectively reduce
psychological distress。 People who had families who stayed in the Middle East with them during the Gulf
War did much better psychologically than those who had no family there and those whose families
returned to their native country。 Social support also seems both to decrease the likelihood of physical illness
and to speed recovery。 Research has been attempting to identify precisely how social support mitigates
stress and has arrived at two hypotheses：
。 The Direct Effects Hypothesis suggests that social support is always beneficial； during both stressful
and nonstressful times。
。 The Buffering Hypothesis suggests that the physical and mental health benefits of social support occur
mainly during periods of high stress and not during periods of low stress。
Extensive research suggests that both hypotheses are at least partially correct。
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Some of us have a tough time managing and coping with stress on our own。 In such cases； stress
management programs are helpful。 As an example； college can be an appallingly stressful experience for
students。 Being away from home； living with strangers； sharing living space； taking demanding courses；
and increased petition for grades can be very stressful。 Many colleges offer programs to help students
adjust to and cope with the stresses of university life by teaching them stress management techniques。 One
important lesson of these courses is that stress is subjective and self…reinforcing。 The more stressful you
perceive an event to be； the more stressful it will bee。 These programs also teach students to recognize
and record things that stress them out and to write down their reactions to these events。 Sharing
experiences and learning relaxation techniques are also useful ponents of many courses。 The goal of
these courses is not to eliminate stress； but rather to recognize its causes； to cope with them effectively； and
to keep stress to a manageable level。
Gender Differences in Expressed Emotion
You might discuss with your class gender differences in the expression of emotion。 In our culture； men have
traditionally been taught to “bottle…up” their emotions and “tough things out。” To be seen as “strong” for
males often has meant not allowing themselves to cry or show any sign of emotional “weakness。” Even
today； many males are embarrassed to cry in public； no matter how justified they may be in expressing
sadness。 On the other hand； the one emotion that males in our culture have been allowed to express is
anger。 In certain situations； expressions of anger and aggression are seen as “macho” whereas passive
failure to express anger or be aggressive is seen as a sign of weakness。 What impact do these social norms
and expectations have on young boys growing up？ Does this contribute to the higher rates of violent crime
among males？ Does it contribute to males’ higher rates of heart disease and certain types of stress…related
illnesses？ What could be done to make it easier for males to express emotions of sadness and not feel
pressured to be aggressive； and still feel like healthy males？
On the other hand； females are often socialized to express a wide range of emotions； including sadness； and
are not usually chastised for crying in public。 We have traditionally encouraged females to “get in touch
with” their feelings and express them。 But females have much higher rates of reported depression than
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
males。 How much of that may be due to excess rumination about feelings of sadness based on “getting in
touch” with those feelings？ Also； females have historically been chastised for openly expressing anger in
public； as it was not considered “ladylike。” But society put females in a somewhat impossible situation； by
encouraging them to cry and express sadness； but not show anger； and then labeling them as “weak” when
they did。 Other than increased risk of depression （mentioned above）； in what ways have these social norms
and expectations affected females？
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Hans Hugo Selye （1907–1982）
Hans Selye was known as “Dr。 Stress” by press and colleagues alike； a name he rightly earned after more
than 42 years of conducting research on the effects of stress on humans。 Born in Vienna in 1907； Selye was
first exposed to medical science through his father； a military surgeon in the Austro…Hungarian army。 He
received his early formal education from the Benedictines and later attended medical school at the German
University of Prague； where he specialized in endocrinology。 Even in his early years in medical school； he
was struck by the fact that the patients he encountered in the hospital exhibited an overall syndrome of
“just being sick” that was more than the mere sum of the specific symptoms of their disea
