the story of mankind-第39章

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of　learning　which　is　only　taught　elsewhere；　and　then　we　learn

another　language　and　go　to　Munich　or　Madrid　or　Moscow。

But　the　people　of　the　thirteenth　or　fourteenth　century　rarely

talked　of　themselves　as　Englishmen　or　Frenchmen　or　Italians。

They　said；　‘‘I　am　a　citizen　of　Sheffield　or　Bordeaux　or　Genoa。''

Because　they　all　belonged　to　one　and　the　same　church　they　felt

a　certain　bond　of　brotherhood。　And　as　all　educated　men　could

speak　Latin；　they　possessed　an　international　language　which

removed　the　stupid　language　barriers　which　have　grown　up

in　modern　Europe　and　which　place　the　small　nations　at　such

an　enormous　disadvantage。　Just　as　an　example；　take　the　case

of　Erasmus；　the　great　preacher　of　tolerance　and　laughter；　who

wrote　his　books　in　the　sixteenth　century。　He　was　the　native

of　a　small　Dutch　village。　He　wrote　in　Latin　and　all　the　world

was　his　audience。　If　he　were　alive　to…day；　he　would　write　in

Dutch。　Then　only　five　or　six　million　people　would　be　able　to

read　him。　To　be　understood　by　the　rest　of　Europe　and　America；

his　publishers　would　be　obliged　to　translate　his　books　into

twenty　different　languages。　That　would　cost　a　lot　of　money

and　most　likely　the　publishers　would　never　take　the　trouble

or　the　risk。



Six　hundred　years　ago　that　could　not　happen。　The　greater

part　of　the　people　were　still　very　ignorant　and　could　not　read

or　write　at　all。　But　those　who　had　mastered　the　difficult　art

of　handling　the　goose…quill　belonged　to　an　international　republic

of　letters　which　spread　across　the　entire　continent　and　which

knew　of　no　boundaries　and　respected　no　limitations　of　language

or　nationality。　The　universities　were　the　strongholds　of

this　republic。　Unlike　modern　fortifications；　they　did　not　follow

the　frontier。　They　were　to　be　found　wherever　a　teacher

and　a　few　pupils　happened　to　find　themselves　together。　There

again　the　Middle　Ages　and　the　Renaissance　differed　from　our

own　time。　Nowadays；　when　a　new　university　is　built；　the

process　（almost　invariably）　is　as　follows：　Some　rich　man

wants　to　do　something　for　the　community　in　which　he　lives　or

a　particular　religious　sect　wants　to　build　a　school　to　keep　its

faithful　children　under　decent　supervision；　or　a　state　needs　doc…

tors　and　lawyers　and　teachers。　The　university　begins　as　a

large　sum　of　money　which　is　deposited　in　a　bank。　This　money

is　then　used　to　construct　buildings　and　laboratories　and　dormitories。

Finally　professional　teachers　are　hired；　entrance　examinations

are　held　and　the　university　is　on　the　way。



But　in　the　Middle　Ages　things　were　done　differently。　A　wise　man

said　to　himself；　‘‘I　have　discovered　a　great　truth。　I　must　impart　my

knowledge　to　others。''　And　he　began　to　preach　his　wisdom

wherever　and　whenever　he　could　get　a　few　people　to　listen　to　him；

like　a　modern　soap…box　orator。　If　he　was　an　interesting　speaker；　the

crowd　came　and　stayed。　If　he　was　dull；　they　shrugged　their　shoulders

and　continued　their　way。



By　and　by　certain　young　men　began　to　come　regularly　to　hear

the　words　of　wisdom　of　this　great　teacher。　They　brought　copybooks

with　them　and　a　little　bottle　of　ink　and　a　goose　quill　and

wrote　down　what　seemed　to　be　important。　One　day　it　rained。

The　teacher　and　his　pupils　retired　to　an　empty　basement　or

the　room　of　the　‘‘Professor。''　The　learned　man　sat　in　his　chair

and　the　boys　sat　on　the　floor。　That　was　the　beginning　of　the

University；　the　‘‘universitas；''　a　corporation　of　professors　and

students　during　the　Middle　Ages；　when　the　‘‘teacher''　counted

for　everything　and　the　building　in　which　he　taught　counted　for

very　little。



As　an　example；　let　me　tell　you　of　something　that　happened

in　the　ninth　century。　In　the　town　of　Salerno　near　Naples　there

were　a　number　of　excellent　physicians。　They　attracted　people

desirous　of　learning　the　medical　profession　and　for　almost　a

thousand　years　（until　1817）　there　was　a　university　of　Salerno

which　taught　the　wisdom　of　Hippocrates；　the　great　Greek　doctor

who　had　practiced　his　art　in　ancient　Hellas　in　the　fifth

century　before　the　birth　of　Christ。



Then　there　was　Abelard；　the　young　priest　from　Brittany；

who　early　in　the　twelfth　century　began　to　lecture　on　theology

and　logic　in　Paris。　Thousands　of　eager　young　men　flocked

to　the　French　city　to　hear　him。　Other　priests　who　disagreed

with　him　stepped　forward　to　explain　their　point　of　view。　Paris

was　soon　filled　with　a　clamouring　multitude　of　Englishmen　and

Germans　and　Italians　and　students　from　Sweden　and　Hungary

and　around　the　old　cathedral　which　stood　on　a　little　island　in

the　Seine　there　grew　the　famous　University　of　Paris。

In　Bologna　in　Italy；　a　monk　by　the　name　of　Gratian　had

compiled　a　text…book　for　those　whose　business　it　was　to　know

the　laws　of　the　church。　Young　priests　and　many　laymen　then

came　from　all　over　Europe　to　hear　Gratian　explain　his　ideas。

To　protect　themselves　against　the　landlords　and　the　innkeepers

and　the　boarding…house　ladies　of　the　city；　they　formed　a　corporation

（or　University）　and　behold　the　beginning　of　the　university

of　Bologna。



Next　there　was　a　quarrel　in　the　University　of　Paris。　We　do

not　know　what　caused　it；　but　a　number　of　disgruntled　teachers

together　with　their　pupils　crossed　the　channel　and　found　a

hospitable　home　in　n　little　village　on　the　Thames　called　Oxford；

and　in　this　way　the　famous　University　of　Oxford　came　into

being。　In　the　same　way；　in　the　year　1222；　there　had　been　a　split

in　the　University　of　Bologna。　The　discontented　teachers　（again

followed　by　their　pupils）　had　moved　to　Padua　and　their　proud　city

thenceforward　boasted　of　a　university　of　its　own。　And　so　it　went

from　Valladolid　in　Spain　to　Cracow　in　distant　Poland　and　from

Poitiers　in　France　to　Rostock　in　Germany。



It　is　quite　true　that　much　of　the　teaching　done　by　these

early　professors　would　sound　absurd　to　our　ears；　trained　to

listen　to　logarithms　and　geometrical　theorems。　The　point

however；　which　I　want　to　make　is　thisthe　Middle　Ages　and

especially　the　thirteenth　century　were　not　a　time　when　the

world　stood　entirely　still。　Among　the　younger　generation；

there　was　life；　there　was　enthusiasm；　and　there　was　a　restless

if　somewhat　bashful　asking　of　questions。　And　out　of　this

turmoil　grew　the　Renaissance。



But　just　before　the　curtain　went　down　upon　the　last　scene

of　the　Mediaeval　world；　a　solitary　figure　crossed　the　stage；　of

whom　you　ought　to　know　more　than　his　mere　name。　This

man　was　called　Dante。　He　was　the　son　of　a　Florentine　lawyer

who　belonged　to　the　Alighieri　family　and　he　saw　the　light　of

day　in　the　year　1265。　He　grew　up　in　the　city　of　his　ancestors

while　Giotto　was　painting　his　stories　of　the　life　of　St。　Francis

of　Assisi　upon　the　walls　of　the　Church　of　the　Holy　Cross；　but

often　when　he　went　to　school；　his　frightened　eyes　would　see　the

puddles　of　blood　which　told　of　the　terrible　and　endless　warfare

that　raged　forever　between　the　Guelphs　and　the　Ghibellines；

the　followers　of　the　Pope　and　the　adherents　of　the　Emperors。



When　he　grew　up；　he　became　a　Guelph；　because　his　father

had　been　one　before　him；　just　as　an　American　boy　might　become

a　Democrat　or　a　Republican；　simply　because　his　father

had　happened　to　be　a　Democrat　or　a　Republican。　But　after　a

few　years；　Dante　saw　that　Italy；　unless　united　under　a　single

head；　threatened　to　perish　as　a　victim　of　the　disordered　jealousies

of　a　thousand　little　cities。　Then　he　became　a　Ghilbeiline。



He　looked　for　help　beyond　the　Alps。　He　hoped　that　a

mighty　emperor　might　come　and　re…establish　unity　and　order。

Alas！　he　hoped　in　vain。　The　Ghibellines　were　driven　out　of

Florence　in　the　year　1802。　From　that　time　on　until　the　day

of　his　death　amidst　the　dreary　ruins　of　Ravenna；　in　the　year

1321；　Dante　was　a　homeless　wanderer；　eating　the　bread　of

charity　at　the　table　of　rich　patrons　whose　names　would　have

sunk　into　the　deepest　pit　of　oblivion　but　for　this　single　fact；

that　they　had　been　kind　to　a　poet　in　his　misery。　During　the

many　years　of　exile；　Da